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<title>Language policy</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Language policy</span></span>

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<p><b>Language policy</b> is both an interdisciplinary academic field<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and implementation of ideas about <a href="Language" title="Language">language</a> use.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

Some scholars such as <a href="Joshua_Fishman" title="Joshua Fishman">Joshua Fishman</a> and <a href="Ofelia_Garc%C3%ADa_(educator)" title="Ofelia García (educator)">Ofelia García</a> consider it as part of <a href="Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">sociolinguistics</a>. On the other hand, other scholars such as <a href="Bernard_Spolsky" title="Bernard Spolsky">Bernard Spolsky</a>, Robert B. Kaplan and <a href="Joseph_Lo_Bianco" title="Joseph Lo Bianco">Joseph Lo Bianco</a> argue that language policy is a branch of <a href="Applied_linguistics" title="Applied linguistics">applied linguistics</a>.

</p><p>As a field, language policy is also known as <a href="Language_planning" title="Language planning">language planning</a> or language policy and planning,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is related to other fields such as <a href="Language_ideology" title="Language ideology">language ideology</a>, <a href="Language_revitalization" title="Language revitalization">language revitalization</a>, and <a href="Language_education" title="Language education">language education</a>, among others.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2></div>

<p>Language policy has been defined in a number of ways. According to Kaplan and Baldauf (1997), "A language policy is a body of ideas, laws, regulations, rules and practices intended to achieve the planned language change in the societies, group or system" (p. xi<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>).

<a href="Joseph_Lo_Bianco" title="Joseph Lo Bianco">Lo Bianco</a> defines the field as "a situated activity, whose specific history and local circumstances influence what is regarded as a language problem, and whose political dynamics determine which language problems are given policy treatment” (p. 152).<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

McCarty (2011) defines language policy as "a complex sociocultural process [and as] modes of human interaction, negotiation, and production mediated by relations of power. The 'policy' in these processes resides in their language-regulating power; that is, the ways in which they express normative claims about legitimate and illegitimate language forms and uses, thereby governing language statuses and uses" (p. 8).<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2></div>

<p>Language policy is broad, but it can be categorized into three components. Spolsky (2004) argues, "A useful first step is to distinguish between the three components of the language policy of a speech community: (1) its language practices – the habitual pattern of selecting among the varieties that make up its linguistic repertoire; (2) its language beliefs or ideology – the beliefs about language and language use; and (3) any specific efforts to modify or influence that practice by any kind of language intervention, planning, or management" (p. 5).<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The traditional scope of language policy concerns language regulation. This refers to what a government does either officially through <a href="Legislation" title="Legislation">legislation</a>, court decisions or policy to determine how languages are used, cultivate language skills needed to meet national priorities or to establish the rights of individuals or groups to use and maintain languages.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Implementation">Implementation</h2></div>

<p>The implementation of language policy varies from one state to another. This may be explained by the fact that language policy is often based on contingent historical reasons.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise, states also differ as to the degree of explicitness with which they implement a given language policy. The French <a href="Toubon_Law" title="Toubon Law"> Toubon law</a> provides a good example of explicit language policy. The same may be said for the <a href="Charter_of_the_French_Language" title="Charter of the French Language">Charter of the French Language</a> in <a href="Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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Scholars such as Tollefson argue that language policy can create inequality: </p><blockquote><p> "language planning-policy means the institutionalization of language as a basis for distinctions among social groups (classes). That is, language policy is one mechanism for locating language within social structure so that language determines who has access to political power and economic resources. Language policy is one mechanism by which dominant groups establish hegemony in language use" (p. 16).<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote>

<p>Many countries have a language policy designed to favor or discourage the use of a particular <a href="Language" title="Language">language</a> or set of languages. States, local authorities or pressure-groups can promote <a href="Bilingual_sign" title="Bilingual sign">bilingual signage</a> or can agitate for translations of newspaper articles.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

Although nations historically have used language policies most often to promote one <a href="Official_language" title="Official language">official language</a> at the expense of others, many countries now have policies designed to protect and promote regional and ethnic languages whose viability is threatened. Indeed, whilst the existence of <a href="Minority_language" title="Minority language"> linguistic minorities</a> within a jurisdiction has often been considered to be a potential threat to internal cohesion, states also understand that providing language rights to minorities may be more in their long-term interest, as a means of gaining citizens' trust in the central government.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The preservation of <a href="Cultural_diversity" title="Cultural diversity"> cultural</a> and <a href="Linguistic_diversity" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic diversity">linguistic diversity</a> in today's world is a major concern to many scientists, artists, writers, politicians, leaders of linguistic communities, and defenders of <a href="Linguistic_human_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic human rights">linguistic human rights</a>. More than half of the 6000 languages currently spoken in the world are estimated to be in danger of disappearing during the 21st century. Many factors affect the existence and usage of any given human language, including the size of the population of native speakers, its use in formal communication, and the geographical dispersion and the socio-economic weight of its speakers. National language policies can either mitigate or exacerbate the effects of some of these factors.

</p><p>

For example, according to <a href="Ghil'ad_Zuckermann" title="Ghil'ad Zuckermann">Ghil'ad Zuckermann</a>: </p><blockquote><p>"Native tongue title and language rights should be promoted. The government ought to define Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander vernaculars as official languages of Australia. We must change the linguistic landscape of Whyalla and elsewhere. Signs should be in both English and the local indigenous language. We ought to acknowledge intellectual property of indigenous knowledge including language, music and dance."<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote>

<p>There are many ways in which language policies can be categorized. <a href="Universit%C3%A9_Laval" title="Université Laval">Université Laval</a> <a href="Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">sociolinguist</a> Jacques Leclerc elaborated the field for the French-language web site <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde</i></span> (put on line by the CIRAL in 1999).<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The collecting, translating and classifying of language policies started in 1988 and culminated in the publishing of <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Recueil des législations linguistiques dans le monde</i></span> (vol. I to VI) at Presses de l'Université Laval in 1994. The work, containing some 470 language-laws, and the research leading to publication, were subsidised by the <a href="Office_qu%C3%A9b%C3%A9cois_de_la_langue_fran%C3%A7aise" title="Office québécois de la langue française">Office québécois de la langue française</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In April 2008, the web site presented the linguistic portrait and language policies in 354 States or autonomous territories in 194 recognised countries.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Language_regulators">Language regulators</h2></div>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_language_regulators" title="List of language regulators">List of language regulators</a></li>

<li><a href="Acad%C3%A9mie_fran%C3%A7aise" class="mw-redirect" title="Académie française">Académie française</a></li>

<li><a href="Academy_of_the_Hebrew_Language" title="Academy of the Hebrew Language">The Academy of the Hebrew Language</a></li>

<li><a href="Akademio_de_Esperanto" title="Akademio de Esperanto">Akademio de Esperanto</a></li>

<li><a href="Association_of_Spanish_Language_Academies" class="mw-redirect" title="Association of Spanish Language Academies">Association of Spanish Language Academies</a></li>

<li><a href="%C3%81rni_Magn%C3%BAsson_Institute_for_Icelandic_Studies" title="Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies">Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Board_for_Standardization_of_the_Serbian_Language" title="Board for Standardization of the Serbian Language">Board for Standardization of the Serbian Language</a> (Serbia, Montenegro, Republika Srpska)</li>

<li><a href="B%C3%B2rd_na_G%C3%A0idhlig" title="Bòrd na Gàidhlig">Bòrd na Gàidhlig</a> (<a href="Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Gaelic</a> in Scotland)</li>

<li><a href="Commission_on_the_Filipino_Language" title="Commission on the Filipino Language">Commission on the Filipino Language</a> (Philippines)</li>

<li><a href="Dewan_Bahasa_dan_Pustaka" title="Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka">Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka</a> (Malaysia)</li>

<li><a href="Dutch_Language_Union" title="Dutch Language Union">Dutch Language Union</a></li>

<li><a href="Foras_na_Gaeilge" title="Foras na Gaeilge">Foras na Gaeilge</a> (Irish)</li>

<li><a href="Institute_for_Catalan_Studies" title="Institute for Catalan Studies">Institut d'Estudis Catalans</a></li>

<li><a href="Language_Development_and_Fostering_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Language Development and Fostering Agency">Badan Pengembangan Bahasa dan Perbukuan</a> (Indonesia)</li>

<li><a href="Norwegian_Language_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Norwegian Language Council">Norwegian Language Council</a></li>

<li><a href="Office_qu%C3%A9b%C3%A9cois_de_la_langue_fran%C3%A7aise" title="Office québécois de la langue française">Office québécois de la langue française</a></li>

<li><a href="Ofis_Publik_ar_Brezhoneg" title="Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg">Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg</a> (<a href="Breton_language" title="Breton language">Breton</a> in <a href="Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Pan_South_African_Language_Board" title="Pan South African Language Board">Pan South African Language Board</a></li>

<li><a href="Real_Academia_Espa%C3%B1ola" class="mw-redirect" title="Real Academia Española">Real Academia Española</a></li>

<li><a href="State_Language_Commission" title="State Language Commission">State Language Commission</a> (China)</li>

<li><a href="Swedish_Language_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Swedish Language Council">Swedish Language Council</a></li>

<li><a href="Welsh_Language_Commissioner" title="Welsh Language Commissioner">Welsh Language Commissioner</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Linguistic_diversity" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic diversity">Linguistic diversity</a></li>

<li><a href="Linguistic_rights" title="Linguistic rights">Linguistic rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_hegemony" title="Cultural hegemony">Cultural hegemony</a></li>

<li><a href="Directorate_of_Language_Planning_and_Implementation" title="Directorate of Language Planning and Implementation">Directorate of Language Planning and Implementation</a></li>

<li><a href="Economics_of_language" title="Economics of language">Economics of language</a></li>

<li><a href="Grimm's_law" title="Grimm's law">Grimm's law</a></li>

<li><a href="Language_change" title="Language change">Language change</a></li>

<li><a href="Language_movement_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Language movement (disambiguation)">Language movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Language_planning" title="Language planning">Language planning</a></li>

<li><a href="Language_politics" title="Language politics">Language politics</a></li>

<li><a href="Language_reform" title="Language reform">Language reform</a></li>

<li><a href="Language_revitalization" title="Language revitalization">Language revitalization</a></li>

<li><a href="Language_death" title="Language death">Language death</a></li>

<li><a href="Cross-border_language" title="Cross-border language">Cross-border language</a></li>

<li><a href="National_language" title="National language">National language</a></li>

<li><a href="Native_Tongue_Title" class="mw-redirect" title="Native Tongue Title">Native Tongue Title</a></li>

<li><a href="Official_language" title="Official language">Official language</a></li>

<li><a href="Official_script" title="Official script">Official script</a></li>

<li><a href="Regional_language" title="Regional language">Regional language</a></li>

<li><a href="Street_name_controversy" title="Street name controversy">Street name controversy</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Mother_Language_Day" title="International Mother Language Day">International Mother Language Day</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Year_of_Languages" title="International Year of Languages">International Year of Languages</a> (2008)</li>

<li><a href="Languages_in_censuses" title="Languages in censuses">Languages in censuses</a></li></ul>

<p><b>Directions of language policies</b>:

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Linguistic_imperialism" title="Linguistic imperialism">Linguistic imperialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Linguistic_purism" title="Linguistic purism">Linguistic purism</a></li>

<li><a href="Language_secessionism" title="Language secessionism">Language secessionism</a></li></ul>

<p><b>Some case studies</b>:

</p>

<ul><li>Europe: <a href="European_Charter_for_Regional_or_Minority_Languages" title="European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages">European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages</a></li>

<li>Belgium: <a href="Language_legislation_in_Belgium" title="Language legislation in Belgium">Language legislation in Belgium</a></li>

<li>Croatia: <a href="Croatian_linguistic_purism" title="Croatian linguistic purism">Croatian linguistic purism</a></li>

<li>Finland: <a href="Finland's_language_strife" title="Finland's language strife">Finland's language strife</a></li>

<li>France: <a href="Language_policy_in_France" title="Language policy in France">Language policy in France</a></li>

<li>Germany: <a href="Germanisation" title="Germanisation">Germanization</a></li>

<li>Hungary: <a href="Magyarization" title="Magyarization">Magyarization</a></li>

<li>Italy: <a href="Italianization" title="Italianization">Italianization</a></li>

<li>Latvia: <a href="Language_policy_in_Latvia" title="Language policy in Latvia">Language policy in Latvia</a></li>

<li>Poland: <a href="Polonization" title="Polonization">Polonization</a></li>

<li>Russia and Soviet Union: <a href="Russification" title="Russification">Russification</a>, <a href="Education_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Education in the Soviet Union">Education in the Soviet Union</a></li>

<li>Slovakia: <a href="Language_law_of_Slovakia" title="Language law of Slovakia">Language law of Slovakia</a>, <a href="Slovakization" title="Slovakization">Slovakization</a></li>

<li>Spain: <a href="Language_policies_of_Francoist_Spain" title="Language policies of Francoist Spain">Language policies of Francoist Spain</a></li>

<li>Ukraine: <a href="Ukrainization" title="Ukrainization">Ukrainization</a></li>

<li>Wales: <a href="Welsh_Not" title="Welsh Not">Welsh Not</a></li>

<li>Arab world: <a href="Arabization" title="Arabization">Arabization</a></li>

<li>Bangladesh: <a href="Bengali_language_movement" title="Bengali language movement">Bengali language movement</a></li>

<li>Canada: <a href="Official_bilingualism_in_Canada" title="Official bilingualism in Canada">Official bilingualism in Canada</a>, <a href="Official_Languages_Act_(Canada)" title="Official Languages Act (Canada)">Official Languages Act (Canada)</a></li>

<li>India: <a href="Anti-Hindi_agitations_of_Tamil_Nadu" title="Anti-Hindi agitations of Tamil Nadu">Anti-Hindi agitations of Tamil Nadu</a></li>

<li>Pakistan: <a href="Urdu_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Urdu movement">Urdu movement</a></li>

<li>United States: <a href="English-only_movement" title="English-only movement">English-only movement</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199772810/obo-9780199772810-0273.xml">"Language Policy and Planning"</a>. <i>obo</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-01-29</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

For example:

<cite id="CITEREFChristian1999" class="citation book cs1">Christian, Donna (1999). "Looking at Federal Education Legislation From a Language Policy/Planning Perspective". In Huebner, Thom; Davis, Kathryn Anne; <a href="Joseph_Lo_Bianco" title="Joseph Lo Bianco">Lo Bianco, Joseph</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ph5I282R02IC"><i>Sociopolitical Perspectives on Language Policy and Planning in the USA</i></a>. Studies in Bilingualism 16. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing. p. 117. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9789027241238</bdi><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 January</span> 2024</span>. <q>Language policy can be defined as the combination of official decisions and prevailing public practices related to language education and use.</q></cite> </span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKaplanBaldauf1997" class="citation book cs1">Kaplan, Robert B.; Baldauf, Richard B. (1997). <i>Language planning from practice to theory</i>. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHornbergerMcKay2010" class="citation book cs1">Hornberger, Nancy H.; McKay, Sandra L. (2010). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sociolinguistics00horn_413"><i>Sociolinguistics and language education</i></a></span>. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sociolinguistics00horn_413/page/n163">143</a>–176.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMcCarty2011" class="citation book cs1">McCarty, Teresa (2011). <i>Ethnography of Language Policy</i>. New York: Routledge.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSpolsky2004" class="citation book cs1">Spolsky, Bernard (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/samples/cam041/2003053295.pdf"><i>Language Policy</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 5.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSpolsky2004" class="citation book cs1">Spolsky, Bernard (2004). <i>Language policy</i>. Key topics in sociolinguistics (1. publ ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. p. 23. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521-01175-4</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Van der Jeught, S., EU Language Law (2015), Europa Law Publishing: Groningen, 15 et seq.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFTollefson1989" class="citation book cs1">Tollefson, James W. (1989). <i>Planning language, planning inequality: Language policy in the community</i>. London: Longman.</cite></span>

</li>

For example:

<cite id="CITEREFRichard_Wonser_Tims1941" class="citation book cs1">Richard Wonser Tims (1941). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tRMOAQAAIAAJ"><i>Germanizing Prussian Poland: The H-K-T Society and the Struggle for the Eastern Marches in the German Empire, 1894-1919</i></a>. Issue 487 of Studies in history, economics, and public law, ISSN 0585-6760. Columbia University Press. p. 136. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780231913027</bdi><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 January</span> 2024</span>. <q>[Pan-Germanism] demanded that every Polish newspaper in Germany be required to carry a parallel German text.</q></cite> <span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment">ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)</span> </span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arzoz, X., "The Nature of Language Rights". <i>Journal on Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in Europe</i> (2007): 13.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Ghil'ad_Zuckermann" title="Ghil'ad Zuckermann">Zuckermann, Ghil'ad</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theaustralian.com.au/higher-education/opinion/stop-revive-and-survive/story-e6frgcko-1226385194433">"Stop, revive and survive"</a>, <i>The Australian Higher Education</i>, June 6, 2012.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(French) Leclerc, Jacques. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/monde/index_politique-lng.htm">"Index par politiques linguistiques"</a> in <i>L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde</i>, Québec, TLFQ, <a href="Universit%C3%A9_Laval" title="Université Laval">Université Laval</a>, December 2003.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leclerc, Jacques. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/monde/historique_du_site.htm">"Historique du site du CIRAL au TLFQ"</a> in <i>L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde</i>, Québec, TLFQ, <a href="Universit%C3%A9_Laval" title="Université Laval">Université Laval</a>, August 16, 2007 (in French).</span>

</li>

Leclerc, Jacques. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/index.shtml">"Page d'accueil"</a> in <i>L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde</i>, Québec, TLFQ, <a href="Universit%C3%A9_Laval" title="Université Laval">Université Laval</a>, 2007 (in French).</span>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div>

<ul><li>Tollefson, J. W. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tVANAQAAMAAJ">Planning language, planning inequality: Language policy in the community</a>. London: Longman.</li>

<li>Spolsky, B. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/language-policy/ECEC8D0753B37847BF04AF29D44D0BE8">Language policy</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li>

<li>Spolsky, B. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/language-management/8C8589ED71C5AAFB84DC320811ECED2A">Language management</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li>

<li>Johnson, D. C. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.palgrave.com/gp/book/9780230251694">Language policy</a>. London: Palgrave MacMillan.</li>

<li>Cooper, R. L. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/language-planning-and-social-change/932B8B56E2BD115B6DB25E317AE1F120">Language planning and social change</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li>

<li>Zein, S. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.routledge.com/Language-Policy-in-Superdiverse-Indonesia/Zein/p/book/9780367029548">Language policy in superdiverse Indonesia</a>. New York and London: Routledge.</li>

<li>Ginsburgh, V., Weber, S. (Eds.). (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.palgrave.com/us/book/9781137325044">The Palgrave Handbook of Economics and Language</a>. London: Palgrave Macmillan.</li>

<li>Michele Gazzola,Torsten Templin, Bengt-Arne Wickström, (2018), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bookmetrix.com/detail/book/40d92678-6e28-483a-b595-b9b54ac0e3aa"><i>Language Policy and Linguistic Justice</i></a>, Springer.</li>

<li>Shohamy, Elana (2006). <i>Language Policy: Hidden Agendas and New Approaches.</i> London: Routledge.</li>

<li>Hult, F.M., & Johnson, D.C. (Eds.) (2015). <i>Research Methods in Language Policy and Planning: A Practical Guide.</i> Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-118-30838-7</bdi>.</li>

<li>Crawford, James (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.languagepolicy.net"><i>Language Policy Website.</i></a></li>

<li>Bastardas-Boada, Albert (2012). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ub.edu/cusc/llenguesmitjanes/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/IEA_50_Bastardas-English.pdf">Language and identity policies in the 'glocal' age</a></i>. Barcelona: Institut d'Estudis Autonòmics.</li>

<li>Bastardas-Boada, Albert (2013). Language policy and planning as an interdisciplinary field: Towards a complexity approach, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14664208.2013.829276"><i>Current Issues in Language Planning</i></a>, Volume 14, 2013 - Issue 3-04.</li>

<li>Bastardas-Boada, Albert (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.publicacions.ub.edu/ficha.aspx?cod=10430"><i>From language shift to language revitalization and sustainability. A complexity approach to linguistic ecology</i></a>. Barcelona: Edicions de la Universitat de Barcelona. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-84-9168-316-2</bdi>.</li>

<li>Kadochnikov, D. (2016). Languages, Regional Conflicts and Economic Development: Russia. In: Ginsburgh, V., Weber, S. (Eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.palgrave.com/us/book/9781137325044">The Palgrave Handbook of Economics and Language</a>. London: Palgrave Macmillan. 2016. pp. 538–580.</li>

<li>Spolsky, Bernard (2012). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cambridge.org/gb/knowledge/isbn/item6516391/">The Cambridge Handbook of Language Policy</a></i>. <a href="Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>.</li>

<li>Silva, Diego B. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scielo.br/j/alfa/a/YPntRnVWDW5F8P8PYfJGPKd/?lang=en">Language policy in Oceania</a>. <i>Alfa, Rev. Linguíst.</i> 63 (2).</li>

<li>Zuckermann, Ghil'ad and Walsh, Michael 2011.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://adelaide.academia.edu/Zuckermann/Papers/267186/Stop_Revive_Survive_Lessons_from_the_Hebrew_Revival_Applicable_to_the_Reclamation_Maintenance_and_Empowerment_of_Aboriginal_Languages_and_Cultures">'Stop, Revive, Survive: Lessons from the Hebrew Revival Applicable to the Reclamation, Maintenance and Empowerment of Aboriginal Languages and Cultures'</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120315090700/http://adelaide.academia.edu/Zuckermann/Papers/267186/Stop_Revive_Survive_Lessons_from_the_Hebrew_Revival_Applicable_to_the_Reclamation_Maintenance_and_Empowerment_of_Aboriginal_Languages_and_Cultures">Archived</a> 2012-03-15 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>Australian Journal of Linguistics</i> 31.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.coe.int/en/web/language-policy/home">Language Policy Division</a> of the <a href="Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://konyvtar.uni-pannon.hu/doktori/2023/Askarbek_Mambetaliev_dissertation.pdf">Language Policy in Kyrgyzstan</a> University of Pannonia, Hungary</li></ul>

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</style><div id="Language_policy663" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Language policy</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><li><a href="Language_policy_in_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Language policy in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li><li><a href="Language_policy_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Language policy in China">China</a></li><li><a href="Language_policy_in_Finland" class="mw-redirect" title="Language policy in Finland">Finland</a></li><li><a href="Language_policy_in_France" title="Language policy in France">France</a></li><li><a href="Language_policy_in_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Language policy in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li><li><a href="Language_policy_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Language policy in Iran">Iran</a></li><li><a href="Language_policy_in_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="Language policy in Israel">Israel</a></li><li><a href="Language_policy_in_Latvia" title="Language policy in Latvia">Latvia</a></li><li><a href="Language_policy_in_Morocco" class="mw-redirect" title="Language policy in Morocco">Morocco</a></li><li><a href="Language_policy_in_North_Macedonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Language policy in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li><li><a href="Language_policy_in_Singapore" class="mw-redirect" title="Language policy in Singapore">Singapore</a></li><li><a href="Language_policy_in_Uganda" class="mw-redirect" title="Language policy in Uganda">Uganda</a></li><li><a href="Language_policy_in_Ukraine" title="Language policy in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Public_policy35" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Public_policy35" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Public_policy" title="Public policy">Public policy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Agricultural_policy" title="Agricultural policy">Agricultural</a></li>

<li><a href="Politics_of_climate_change" title="Politics of climate change">Climate change</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_policy" title="Cultural policy">Cultural</a></li>

<li><a href="Domestic_policy" title="Domestic policy">Domestic</a></li>

<ul><li><small><a href="Drug_policy_reform" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug policy reform">reform</a></small></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Economic_policy" title="Economic policy">Economic</a>

<ul><li><small><a href="Fiscal_policy" title="Fiscal policy">Fiscal</a></small></li>

<li><small><a href="Incomes_policy" title="Incomes policy">Incomes</a></small></li>

<li><small><a href="Industrial_policy" title="Industrial policy">Industrial</a></small></li>

<li><small><a href="Investment_policy" title="Investment policy">Investment</a></small></li>

<li><small><a href="Monetary_policy" title="Monetary policy">Monetary</a></small></li>

<li><small><a href="Commercial_policy" title="Commercial policy">Trade</a></small></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Education_policy" title="Education policy">Education</a></li>

<li><a href="Energy_policy" title="Energy policy">Energy</a>

<ul><li><small><a href="Nuclear_energy_policy" title="Nuclear energy policy">Nuclear energy</a></small></li>

<li><small><a href="Renewable_energy_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable energy policy">Renewable energy</a></small></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_policy" title="Environmental policy">Environmental</a></li>

<li><a href="Foreign_policy" title="Foreign policy">Foreign</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_policy" title="Health policy">Health</a>

<ul><li><small><a href="Pharmaceutical_policy" title="Pharmaceutical policy">Pharmaceutical</a></small></li>

<li><small><a href="Vaccination_policy" title="Vaccination policy">Vaccination</a></small></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Housing_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="Housing policy">Housing</a></li>

<li><a href="Immigration_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="Immigration policy">Immigration</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_policy" title="Knowledge policy">Knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Military_policy" title="Military policy">Military</a></li>

<li><a href="Science_policy" title="Science policy">Science</a>

<li><small><a href="Space_policy" title="Space policy">Space</a></small></li>

<li><small><a href="Technology_policy" title="Technology policy">Technology</a></small></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Social_policy" title="Social policy">Social</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Evidence-based_policy" title="Evidence-based policy">Evidence-based policy</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_administration" title="Public administration">Public administration</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_budgeting" title="Public budgeting">Public budgeting</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_policy_doctrine" title="Public policy doctrine">Public policy doctrine</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_policy_school" title="Public policy school">Public policy school</a></li>

<li><a href="Policy_analysis" title="Policy analysis">Policy analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Policy_studies" title="Policy studies">Policy studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Youth_services" title="Youth services">Youth services</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_public_policy_topics_by_country" title="List of public policy topics by country">Public policy by country</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q334451#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1222" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q334451#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1222" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85074564">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00562339">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="jazyková politika"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph121323&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datos.bne.es/resource/XX4350853">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000071674&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007555614105171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/71a10bf6-85bc-49fd-9d50-04291ee94909">Yale LUX</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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